Monasticism is fundamental to both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist philosophies and is present wherever Buddhism existed. Tibet was no exception and possessed a monastic establishment that adhered to the basic Buddhist ideological and vinaya norms. At the same time, however, Tibetan monasticism differed markedly from other forms of Buddhist. This is an exercise program used by Tibetan monks to live long, vibrant and healthy lives. In fact, this book states that many have lived longer than most are capable of imagining by following the program often called the 'Five Tibetan Rites'. The benefits.

Tibetan Buddhism (also Indo-Tibetan Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet where it is the dominant religion. It is also found in the regions surrounding the Himalayas (such as Bhutan, Ladakh, and Sikkim), much of Chinese Central Asia, the Southern Siberian regions such as Tuva, as well as Mongolia.

Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Mahayana Buddhism stemming from the latest stages of Indian Buddhism (and so is also part of the tantric Vajrayana tradition). It thus preserves 'the Tantric status quo of eighth-century India.'^[1] However, it also includes native Tibetan developments and practices. In the pre-modern era, Tibetan Buddhism spread outside of Tibet primarily due to the influence of the MongolYuan dynasty (1271–1368), founded by Kublai Khan, which ruled China, Mongolia and parts of Siberia. In the modern era, it has spread outside of Asia due to the efforts of the Tibetan diaspora.

Apart from classical Mahayana Buddhist practices like the six perfections, Tibetan Buddhism also includes Tantric practices, such as deity yoga and the Six Dharmas of Naropa. Its main goal is Buddhahood or rainbow body.^[2] The main language of scriptural study in this tradition is classical Tibetan.

Tibetan Buddhism has four major schools, namely Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Gelug. The Jonang is a smaller school, and the Rimé movement is a recent nonsectarian movement which cuts across the different schools. Each school is independent and has its own monastic institutions and leaders.

• 2History
• 3Teachings
• 4Texts and study
• 5Practices
  • 5.3Preliminary practices
• 6Institutions and Clergy
  • 6.1Women in Tibetan Buddhism
• 7Schools and lineages
  • 7.2Tibetan Buddhist Schools
• 11References

Nomenclature[edit]

The native Tibetan term for Buddhism is 'The Dharma of the insiders' (nang chos) or 'The Buddha Dharma of the insiders' (nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos).^[3][4] This is contrasted with other forms of organized religion, which are termed chos lugs (dharma system), for example, Christianity is termed Yi shu'i chos lugs (Jesus dharma system).^[4]

Westerners unfamiliar with Tibetan Buddhism initially turned to China for understanding. In Han buddhism, the term used is Lamaism (literally, 'doctrine of the lamas': 喇嘛教 lama jiao) to distinguish it from a then-traditional Han form (佛教 fo jiao). The term was taken up by western scholars including Hegel, as early as 1822.^[5][6] Insofar as it implies a discontinuity between Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, the term has been discredited.^[7]

In China, the new term is 藏传佛教 zangchuan fojiao, literally Tibetan Buddhism.

Another term, 'Vajrayāna' (Tibetan: dorje tegpa) is occasionally used mistakenly for Tibetan Buddhism. More accurately, Vajrayāna signifies a certain subset of practices and traditions which are not only part of Tibetan Buddhism, but also prominent in other Buddhist traditions.

In the west, the term 'Indo-Tibetan Buddhism' has become current, in acknowledgement of its derivation from the latest stages of Buddhist development in northern India.^[8]

History[edit]

First dissemination (7th-9th centuries)[edit]

While some stories depict Buddhism in Tibet before this period, the religion was formally introduced to Tibet during the Tibetan Empire (7th-9th century CE). Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures from India were first translated into Tibetan under the reign of the Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo (618-649 CE).^[9] This period also saw the development of the Tibetan writing system and classical Tibetan.

In the 8th century King Trisong Detsen (755-797 CE) established it as the official religion of the state.^[10] Trisong Detsen invited Indian Buddhist scholars to his court, including Padmasambhāva (8th century CE) and Śāntarakṣita (725–788), which are considered the founders of Nyingma (The Ancient Ones), the oldest tradition of Tibetan Buddhism.^[11] Trisong Detsen also invited the Chan master Moheyan^{[note 1]} to transmit the Dharma at Samye Monastery. Some sources state that a debate ensued between Moheyan and the Indian master Kamalaśīla, but they disagree on the victor, and some scholars consider the event fictitious.^{[12][13][note 2][note 3]}

Era of fragmentation (9th-10th centuries)[edit]

A reversal in Buddhist influence began under King Langdarma (r. 836-842), and his death was followed by the so-called Era of Fragmentation, a period of disunity during the 9th and 10th centuries. During this era, the political centralization of the earlier Tibetan Empire collapsed and civil wars ensued.^[16]

In spite of this loss of state power and patronage however, Buddhism survived and thrived in Tibet. According to Geoffrey Samuel this was because 'Tantric (Vajrayana) Buddhism came to provide the principal set of techniques by which Tibetans dealt with the dangerous powers of the spirit world... Buddhism, in the form of Vajrayana ritual, provided a critical set of techniques for dealing with everyday life. Tibetans came to see these techniques as vital for their survival and prosperity in this life.'^[17] This includes dealing with the local gods and spirits (sadak and shipdak), which became a specialty of some Tibetan Buddhist lamas and lay ngagpas (mantrikas, mantra specialists).^[18]

Second dissemination (10th-12th centuries)[edit]

The late 10th and 11th centuries saw a revival of Buddhism in Tibet with the founding of 'New Translation' (Sarma) lineages as well as the appearance of 'hidden treasures' (terma) literature which reshaped the Nyingma tradition.^[19][20]

In 1042 the Bengali master Atiśa (982-1054) arrived in Tibet at the invitation of a west Tibetan king. His chief disciple, Dromton founded the Kadampa school of Tibetan Buddhism, one of the first Sarma schools.

The Sakya, the Grey Earth school, was founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo (1034–1102), a disciple of the great Lotsawa, Drogmi Shākya. It is headed by the Sakya Trizin, and traces its lineage to the mahasiddhaVirūpa.^[11]

Other influential Indian teachers include Tilopa (988–1069) and his student Naropa (probably died ca. 1040). Their teachings, via their student Marpa, are the foundations of the Kagyu, the Oral lineage tradition, which focuses on the practices of Mahamudra and the Six Dharmas of Naropa. One of most famous Kagyu figures was the hermit Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic.

The Dagpo Kagyu, founded by the monk Gampopa who merged Marpa's lineage teachings with the monastic Kadam tradition is today the most influential Kagyu sub grouping.^[11]

Mongol dominance (13th-14th centuries)[edit]

Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of Inner Asia, especially the Mongols. The Mongols invaded Tibet in 1240 and 1244.^[21][22][23] They eventually annexed Amdo and Kham and appointed the great scholar and abbot Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) as Viceroy of Central Tibet in 1249.^[24]

In this way, Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol Empire, with the Sakya hierarchy retaining nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols retained structural and administrative^[25][26] rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. Tibetan Buddhism was adopted as the de factostate religion by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) of Kublai Khan.^[27]

It was also during this period that the Tibetan Buddhist canon was compiled, primarily led by the efforts of the scholar Butön Rinchen Drup (1290–1364). A part of this project included the carving of the canon into wood blocks for printing, and the first copies of these texts were kept at Narthang monastery.^[28]

From family rule to Ganden Phodrang government (14th-18th centuries)[edit]

With the decline of the Yuan dynasty and the loose administration of the following (Han-Chinese) Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Central Tibet was ruled by successive local families from the 14th to the 17th century.^[29]

Jangchub Gyaltsän (1302–1364) became the strongest political family in the mid 14th century.^[30] During this period the reformist scholar Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) founded the Gelug sect which would have a decisive influence on Tibet's history. Internal strife within the Phagmodrupa dynasty, and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions, led to a long series of internal conflicts.

The minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 the Rinpungpa family was overthrown by the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect. They would play a pivotal role in the events which led to the rise of power of the Dalai Lama's in the 1640s.

In China, Tibetan Buddhism continued to be patronized by the elites of the Ming Dynasty. According to David M. Robinson, during this era, Tibetan Buddhist monks 'conducted court rituals, enjoyed privileged status and gained access to the jealously guarded, private world of the emperors'.^[31] The Ming Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) promoted the carving of printing blocks for the Kangyur, now known as “the Yongle Kanjur”, and seen as an important edition of the collection.^[32]

The Ming Dynasty also supported the propagation of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia during this period. Tibetan Buddhist missionaries also helped spread the religion in Mongolia. It was during this era that Altan Khan the leader of the Tümed Mongols, converted to Buddhism, and allied with the Gelug school, conferring the title of Dalai Lama to Sonam Gyatso in 1578.^[33]

During a Tibetan civil war in the 17th century, the chief regent of the 5th Dalai Lama, Sonam Choephel (1595–1657 CE) with the help of the Güshi Khan of the Khoshut Mongols, conquered and unified Tibet and established the Ganden Phodrang government. The Ganden Phodrang and the successive Gelug tulku lineages of the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas maintained regional control of Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries.

Qing rule (18th-20th centuries)[edit]

The Qing dynasty (1644-1912) established a Chinese rule over Tibet after a Qing expeditionary force defeated the Dzungars (who controlled Tibet) in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912.^[34] The Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty supported Tibetan Buddhism, especially the Gelug sect, during most of their rule.^[27] The reign of the Qianlong Emperor was the high mark for this promotion of Tibetan Buddhism in China, with the visit of the 6th Panchen Lama to Beijing, and the building of temples in the Tibetan style, such as Xumi Fushou Temple, the Puning Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple (modeled after the potala palace).^[35]

This period also saw the rise of the Rimé movement, a 19th-century nonsectarian movement involving the Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma schools of Tibetan Buddhism, along with some Bon scholars.^[36] Having seen how the Gelug institutions pushed the other traditions into the corners of Tibet's cultural life, scholars such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892) and Jamgön Kongtrül (1813-1899) compiled together the teachings of the Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma, including many near-extinct teachings.^[37] Without Khyentse and Kongtrul's collecting and printing of rare works, the suppression of Buddhism by the Communists would have been much more final.^[38] The Rimé movement is responsible for a number of scriptural compilations, such as the Rinchen Terdzod and the Sheja Dzö.

During the Qing, Tibetan Buddhism also remained the major religion of the Mongols under Qing rule (1635–1912), as well as the state religion of the Kalmyk Khanate (1630–1771), the Dzungar Khanate (1634–1758) and the Khoshut Khanate (1642–1717).

20th century[edit]

In 1912, following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Tibet became de facto independent under the 13th Dalai Lama government based in Lhasa, maintaining the current territory of what is now called the Tibetan Autonomous Region.^[39]

During the Republic of China (1912–1949), the 'Chinese Tantric Buddhist Revival Movement' (Chinese: 密教復興運動) took place, and important figures such as Nenghai (能海喇嘛, 1886–1967) and Master Fazun (法尊, 1902–1980) promoted Tibetan Buddhism and translated Tibetan works into Chinese.^[40] This movement was severely damaged by during the cultural revolution however.

After the Battle of Chamdo Tibet was annexed by the Chinese People's Republic in 1950. In 1959 the 14th Dalai Lama and a great number of clergy fled the country, to settle in India and other neighbouring countries. The events of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) saw religion as one of the main political targets of the Chinese Communist Party and most of the several thousand temples and monasteries in Tibet were destroyed, with many monks and lamas imprisoned.^[41] Matters were made much worse by the Chinese Cultural Revolution. During this time, private religious expression, as well as Tibetan cultural traditions were suppressed. Much of the Tibetan textual heritage and institutions were destroyed, and monks and nuns were forced to disrobe.^[42] Outside of Tibet however there was a renewed interest in Tibetan Buddhism in places such as Nepal and Bhutan, while the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the Western world was accomplished by many of the refugee Tibetan Lamas who escaped Tibet.^[41]

After the liberalization policies in China during the 1980s, the religion began to recover with some temples and monasteries being reconstructed.^[43] Tibetan Buddhism is now an influential religion among educated Chinese and also in Taiwan.^[43] However, the Chinese government retains strict control over Tibetan Buddhist Institutions in the PRC. Quotas on the number of monks and nuns are maintained, and their activities are closely supervised.^[44]

21st century[edit]

Today, Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the Tibetan Plateau, Mongolia, northern Nepal, Kalmykia (on the north-west shore of the Caspian), Siberia (Tuva and Buryatia), the Russian Far East and northeast China. It is the state religion of Bhutan.^[46] The Indian regions of Sikkim and Ladakh, both formerly independent kingdoms, are also home to significant Tibetan Buddhist populations, as are the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh (which includes Dharamshala and the district of Lahaul-Spiti), West Bengal (the hill stations of Darjeeling and Kalimpong) and Arunachal Pradesh. Religious communities, refugee centers and monasteries have also been established in South India.^[47]

The 14th Dalai Lama is the leader of the Tibetan government in exile which was initially dominated by the Gelug school, however, according to Geoffrey Samuel:

The Dharamsala administration under the Dalai Lama has nevertheless managed, over time, to create a relatively inclusive and democratic structure that has received broad support across the Tibetan communities in exile. Senior figures from the three non-Gelukpa Buddhist schools and from the Bonpo have been included in the religious administration, and relations between the different lamas and schools are now on the whole very positive. This is a considerable achievement, since the relations between these groups were often competitive and conflict-ridden in Tibet before 1959, and mutual distrust was initially widespread. The Dalai Lama’s government at Dharamsala has also continued under difficult circumstances to argue for a negotiated settlement rather than armed struggle with China.^[47]

In the wake of the Tibetan diaspora, Tibetan Buddhism has also gained adherents in the West and throughout the world. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and centers were first established in Europe and North America in the 1960s, and most are now supported by non-Tibetan followers of Tibetan lamas. Some of these westerners went on to learn Tibetan, undertake extensive training in the traditional practices and have been recognized as lamas.^[48] Fully ordained Tibetan Buddhist Monks have also entered Western societies in other ways, such as working academia.^[49]

Samuel sees the character of Tibetan Buddhism in the West as

...that of a national or international network, generally centred around the teachings of a single individual lama. Among the larger ones are the FPMT, which I have already mentioned, now headed by Lama Zopa and the child-reincarnation of Lama Yeshe; the New Kadampa, in origin a break-away from the FPMT; the Shambhala network, deriving from Chögyam Trungpa 's organization and now headed by his son; and the networks associated with Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche (the Dzogchen Community) and Sogyal Rinpoche (Rigpa).^[50]

Teachings[edit]

Tibetan Buddhism upholds classic Buddhist teachings such as the four noble truths (Tib. pakpé denpa shyi), anatman (not-self, bdag med), the five aggregates (phung po) karma and rebirth, and dependent arising (rten cing ’brel bar ’byung ba).^[51] They also uphold various other Buddhist doctrines associated with Mahāyāna Buddhism (theg pa chen po) as well as the tantric Vajrayāna tradition.^[52]

Buddhahood and Bodhisattvas[edit]

The Mahāyāna goal of spiritual development is to achieve the enlightenment of Buddhahood in order to most efficiently help all other sentient beings attain this state.^[53] This motivation is called bodhicitta (mind of awakening) — an altruistic intention to become enlightened for the sake of all sentient beings.^[54]Bodhisattvas (Tib. jangchup semba, literally 'awakening hero') are revered beings who have conceived the will and vow to dedicate their lives with bodhicitta for the sake of all beings.

Widely revered Bodhisattvas in Tibetan Buddhism include Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Vajrapani, and Tara. The most important Buddhas are the five Buddhas of the Vajradhatu mandala^[55] as well as the Adi Buddha (first Buddha), called either Vajradhara or Samantabhadra.

Buddhahood is defined as a state free of the obstructions to liberation as well as those to omniscience (sarvajñana).^[56] When one is freed from all mental obscurations,^[57] one is said to attain a state of continuous bliss mixed with a simultaneous cognition of emptiness,^[58] the true nature of reality.^[59] In this state, all limitations on one's ability to help other living beings are removed.^[60] Tibetan Buddhism claims to teach methods for achieving Buddhahood more quickly (known as the Vajrayāna path).^[61]

It is said that there are countless beings who have attained Buddhahood.^[62] Buddhas spontaneously, naturally and continuously perform activities to benefit all sentient beings.^[63] However it is believed that one's karma could limit the ability of the Buddhas to help them. Thus, although Buddhas possess no limitation from their side on their ability to help others, sentient beings continue to experience suffering as a result of the limitations of their own former negative actions.^[64]

An important schema which is used in understanding the nature of Buddhahood in Tibetan Buddhism is the Trikaya (Three bodies) doctrine.^[65]

The Bodhisattva path[edit]

Tibetan Buddhist Prayers Pdf

A central schema for spiritual advancement used in Tibetan Buddhism is that of the five paths (Skt. pañcamārga; Tib. lam nga) which are:^[66]

1. The path of accumulation - in which one collects wisdom and merit, generates bodhicitta, cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness and right effort (the 'four abandonments').
2. The path of preparation - Is attained when one reaches the union of calm abiding and higher insight meditations (see below) and one becomes familiar with emptiness.
3. The path of seeing - one perceives emptiness directly, all thoughts of subject and object are overcome, one becomes an arya.
4. The path of meditation - one removes subtler traces from one's mind and perfects one's understanding.
5. The path of no more learning - which culminates in Buddhahood.

The schema of the five paths is often elaborated and merged with the concept of the bhumis or the bodhisattva levels.

Lamrim[edit]

Lamrim ('stages of the path') is a Tibetan Buddhist schema for presenting the stages of spiritual practice leading to liberation. In Tibetan Buddhist history there have been many different versions of lamrim, presented by different teachers of the Nyingma, Kagyu and Gelug schools.^[67] However, all versions of the lamrim are elaborations of Atiśa's 11th-century root text A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Bodhipathapradīpa).^[68]

Atisha's lamrim system generally divides practitioners into those of lesser, middling and superior scopes or attitudes:

• The lesser person is to focus on the preciousness of human birth as well as contemplation of death and impermanence.
• The middling person is taught to contemplate karma, dukkha (suffering) and the benefits of liberation and refuge.
• The superior scope is said to encompass the four Brahmaviharas, the bodhisattva vow, the six paramitas as well as Tantric practices.^[69]

Although lamrim texts cover much the same subject areas, subjects within them may be arranged in different ways and with different emphasis depending on the school and tradition it belongs to. Gampopa and Tsongkhapa expanded the short root-text of Atiśa into an extensive system to understand the entire Buddhist philosophy. In this way, subjects like karma, rebirth, Buddhist cosmology and the practice of meditation are gradually explained in logical order.

Vajrayāna[edit]

Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Vajrayāna (Vajra vehicle), 'Secret Mantra' (Skt. guhyamantra) or Buddhist Tantra, affirming the views espoused in the texts known as the Buddhist Tantras (dating from around the 7th century CE onwards).^[70]

Tantra (Tib. rgyud) generally refers to forms of religious practice which emphasize the use of unique visualizations, ideas, symbols and rituals for inner transformation.^[70] The Vajrayana is seen by its adherents as the fastest and most powerful vehicle for enlightenment because it contains many skillful means (upaya) and because it takes the effect (Buddhahood itself, or Buddha nature) as the path (and hence is sometimes known as the 'effect vehicle', phalayana).^[70]

An important element of Tantric practice are tantric deities and their mandalas. These deities come in peaceful (shiwa) and fierce (trowo) forms.^[71]

Tantric texts also generally affirm the use of sense pleasures and other defilements in Tantric ritual as a path to enlightenment, as opposed to non-Tantric Buddhism which affirms that one must renounce all sense pleasures.^[72] These practices are based on the theory of transformation which states that negative or sensual mental factors and physical actions can be cultivated and transformed in a ritual setting. As the Hevajra tantra states:

Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists this practice of reversals is not known.^[73]

Another element of the Tantras is their use of transgressive practices, such as drinking taboo substances such as alcohol or sexual yoga. While in many cases these transgressions were interpreted only symbolically, in other cases they are practiced literally.^[74]

Madhyamaka and tenet systems[edit]

Madhyamaka, also called Shunyavada (the emptiness doctrine) is the dominant Buddhist philosophy of Tibetan Buddhism and is generally seen as the highest view, but is interpreted in various ways. Shunyata, the true nature of reality, or the emptiness of inherent existence (svabhava) of all things, is traditionally propounded according to a hierarchical classification of four classical Indian philosophical schools.

While the classical tenets-system, as propagated by the Gelug school, is limited to four tenets (Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, Yogācāra, and Madhyamaka), more complicated systems include also the shentong-view of the Jonang and the Kagyu, and also differentiates between the radical emptiness of the Gelugpa-school, and the experiential emptiness of the Nyingma and the Sakya.^[75]

Two tenets belong to the path referred to as the Hinayana, and are both Sarvastivada-subschools. They do not include Theravada, the only surviving of the 18 classical schools of Buddhism:^[76]

• Vaibhāṣika (Wylie: bye brag smra ba). The primary source for the Vaibhāṣika is the Abhidharma-kośa of Vasubandhu and its commentaries. This system affirms an atomistic view of reality as well the view that perception directly experiences external objects.^[77]
• Sautrāntika (Wylie: mdo sde pa). The Abhidharmakośa was also an important source for the Sautrāntikas. Dignāga and Dharmakīrti are the most prominent exponents. As opposed to Vaibhāṣika, this view holds that we do not directly perceive the external world, only phenomenal forms caused by objects and our senses.^[77]

The other two tenets are Mahayana:

• Yogācāra, also called Cittamātra 'Mind-Only' (Wylie: sems-tsam-pa). Yogacārins base their views on texts from Maitreya, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu. Yogacara is often interpreted as a form of Idealism.^[77] The system is entirely rejected by the Gelugpa, but elements of it form part of the teachings of the other schools.^[78]
• Madhyamaka (Wylie: dbu-ma-pa) - The philosophy of Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva, which affirms that everything is empty of essence (svabhava) and is ultimately beyond concepts.^[77]

• Rangtong, a term introduced by Dolpopa, which rejects any inherent existing self or nature.^[79] This includes:

• Sautrantika Svātantrika Madhyamaka - Bhāviveka
• Yogācāra Svātantrika Madhyamaka - Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla, the oldest Buddhist teachings to be introduced in Tibet^[80]

• Prasaṅgika, based on Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti. Within prasangika, a further division can be made:

• Intellectual emptiness, which is realized by absolute denial. This is the view of Tsong Khapa and the Gelugpa school, which rejects any statements on an absolute reality beyond mere emptiness.^[81]
• Experiential emptiness, which is realized when the understanding of intellectual emptiness gives way to the recognition of the true nature of mind, c.q. rigpa. This is the view of Nyingma (Dzogchen) and Sakya.^[81]

• Shentong, systematised by Dolpopa, and based on Buddha-nature teachings and influenced by Śāntarakṣita's Yogacara-Madhyamaka. It states that the nature of mind shines through when emptiness has been realized. This approach is dominant in the Jonang school, and can also be found in the Kagyu tradition.^[82][83][84]

The tenet systems are used in monasteries and colleges to teach Buddhist philosophy in a systematic and progressive fashion, each philosophical view being seen as more subtle than its predecessor. Therefore, the four tenets can be seen as a gradual path from a rather easy-to-grasp, 'realistic' philosophical point of view, to more and more complex and subtle views on the ultimate nature of reality, culminating in the philosophy of the Mādhyamikas, which is widely believed to present the most sophisticated point of view.^[85] Non-Tibetan scholars point out that historically, Madhyamaka predates Yogacara, however.^[86]

Texts and study[edit]

Study of major Buddhist Indian texts is central to the monastic curriculum in all four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Memorization of classic texts as well as other ritual texts is expected as part of traditional monastic education.^[87] Another important part of higher religious education is the practice of formalized debate.

The canon was mostly finalized in the 13th century, and divided into two parts, the Kangyur (containing sutras and tantras) and the Tengyur (containing shastras and commentaries). The Nyingma school also maintains a separate collection of texts called the Nyingma Gyubum, assembled by Ratna Lingpa in the 15th century and revised by Jigme Lingpa.^[88]

Among Tibetans, the main language of study is classical Tibetan, however, the Tibetan Buddhist canon was also translated into other languages, such as Mongolian and Manchu.

During the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, many texts from the Tibetan canon were also translated into Chinese.^[89]

Numerous texts have also recently been translated into Western languages by Western academics and Buddhist practitioners.^[90]

Sutras[edit]

Among the most widely studied sutras in Tibetan Buddhism are Mahayana sutras such as the perfection of wisdom or Prajñāpāramitā sutras,^[91] and others such as the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, and the Samādhirāja Sūtra.^[92]

Essential Tibetan Buddhism Pdf

Shastras[edit]

The study of Indian Buddhist texts called shastras is central to Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism. Since the late 11th century, traditional Tibetan monastic colleges generally organized the exoteric study of Buddhism into 'five great textual traditions' (zhungchen-nga).^[93]

1. Abhidharma
   • Asanga's Abhidharma-samuccaya
   • Vasubandhu's Abhidharma-kośa
2. Prajnaparamita
   • Shantideva's Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra
3. Madhyamaka
   • Nagarjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā
   • Aryadeva's Four Hundred Verses (Catuhsataka)
   • Candrakīrti's Madhyamakāvatāra
   • Śāntarakṣita's Madhyamākalaṃkāra
   • Shantideva's Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra
4. Pramana
   • Dharmakirti's Pramāṇavarttika
   • Dignāga's Pramāṇa-samuccaya
5. Vinaya
   • Gunaprabha's Vinayamula Sutra

Other important texts[edit]

Also of great importance are the 'Five Treatises of Maitreya' including the influential Ratnagotravibhāga, a compendium of the tathāgatagarbha literature, and the Mahayanasutralankara, a text on the Mahayana path from the Yogacara perspective, which are often attributed to Asanga. Practiced focused texts such as the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra and Kamalaśīla's Bhāvanākrama are the major sources for meditation.

While the Indian texts are often central, original material by key Tibetan scholars is also widely studied and collected into editions called sungbum.^[94] The commentaries and interpretations that are used to shed light on these texts differ according to tradition. The Gelug school for example, use the works of Tsongkhapa, while other schools may use the more recent work of Rimé movement scholars like Jamgon Kongtrul and Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso.

A corpus of extra-canonical scripture, the treasure texts (terma) literature is acknowledged by Nyingma practitioners, but the bulk of the canon that is not commentary was translated from Indian sources. True to its roots in the Pāla system of North India, however, Tibetan Buddhism carries on a tradition of eclectic accumulation and systematisation of diverse Buddhist elements, and pursues their synthesis. Prominent among these achievements have been the Stages of the Path and mind training literature, both stemming from teachings by the Indian scholar Atiśa.

Tantric literature[edit]

In Tibetan Buddhism, the Buddhist Tantras are divided into four or six categories, with several sub-categories for the highest Tantras.

In the Nyingma, the division is into Outer Tantras (Kriyayoga, Charyayoga, Yogatantra); and Inner Tantras (Mahayoga, Anuyoga, Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen)), which correspond to the 'Anuttarayogatantra'.^[95] For the Nyingma school, important tantras include the Guhyagarbha tantra, the Guhyasamaja tantra,^[96] the Kulayarāja Tantra and the 17 Dzogchen tantras.

In the Sarma schools, the division is:^[97]

• Kriyayoga - These have an emphasis on purification and ritual acts and include texts like the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa.
• Charyayoga - Contain 'a balance between external activities and internal practices', mainly referring to the Mahāvairocana Abhisaṃbodhi Tantra.
• Yogatantra, is mainly concerned with internal yogic techniques and includes the Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra.
• Anuttarayogatantra, contains more advanced techniques such as subtle body practices and is subdivided into:
  • Mother class tantras, which emphasize illusory body and completion stage practices and includes the Guhyasamaja tantra and Yamantaka tantra.
  • Father class, which emphasize the development stage and clear light mind and includes the Hevajra Tantra and Cakrasamvara Tantra.
  • Non-dual class, which balance the above elements, and mainly refers to the Kalacakra tantra

It is important to note that the root tantras themselves are almost unintelligible without the various Indian and Tibetan commentaries, therefore, they are never studied without the use of the tantric commentarial apparatus.

Transmission and realization[edit]

There is a long history of oral transmission of teachings in Tibetan Buddhism. Oral transmissions by lineage holders traditionally can take place in small groups or mass gatherings of listeners and may last for seconds (in the case of a mantra, for example) or months (as in the case of a section of the Tibetan Buddhist canon). It is held that a transmission can even occur without actually hearing, as in Asanga's visions of Maitreya.

An emphasis on oral transmission as more important than the printed word derives from the earliest period of Indian Buddhism, when it allowed teachings to be kept from those who should not hear them.^[98] Hearing a teaching (transmission) readies the hearer for realization based on it. The person from whom one hears the teaching should have heard it as one link in a succession of listeners going back to the original speaker: the Buddha in the case of a sutra or the author in the case of a book. Then the hearing constitutes an authentic lineage of transmission. Authenticity of the oral lineage is a prerequisite for realization, hence the importance of lineages.

Practices[edit]

In Tibetan Buddhism, practices are generally classified as either Sutra (or Pāramitāyāna) or Tantra (Vajrayāna or Mantrayāna), though exactly what constitutes each category and what is included and excluded in each is a matter of debate and differs among the various lineages. According to Tsongkhapa for example, what separates Tantra from Sutra is the practice of Deity yoga.^[99]

While it is generally held that the practices of Vajrayāna are not included in Sutrayāna, all Sutrayāna practices are common to Vajrayāna practice. Traditionally, Vajrayāna is held to be a more powerful and effective path, but potentially more difficult and dangerous and thus they should only be undertaken by the advanced who have established a solid basis in other practices.^[100]

Pāramitā[edit]

The Pāramitās (perfections, transcendent virtues) is a key set of virtues which constitute the major practices of a bodhisattva in non-tantric Mahayana. They are:

1. Dāna pāramitā: generosity, giving of oneself (Tibetan: སབྱིན་པ sbyin-pa)
2. Śīla pāramitā : virtue, morality, discipline, proper conduct (ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས tshul-khrims)
3. Kṣānti pāramitā : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance (བཟོད་པ bzod-pa)
4. Vīrya pāramitā : energy, diligence, vigor, effort (བརྩོན་འགྲུས brtson-’grus)
5. Dhyāna pāramitā : one-pointed concentration, contemplation (བསམ་གཏན bsam-gtan)
6. Prajñā pāramitā : wisdom, insight (ཤེས་རབ shes-rab)

The practice of Dāna (giving) while traditionally referring to offerings of food to the monastics can also refer to the ritual offering of bowls of water, incense, butter lamps and flowers to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on a shrine or household altar.^[101] Similar offerings are also given to other beings such as hungry ghosts, dakinis, protector deities, local divinities etc.

Like other forms of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of the five precepts and Bodhisattva vows is part of Tibetan Buddhist moral (sila) practice. In addition to these, there are also numerous sets of Tantric vows, termed Samaya, which are given as part of Tantric initiations.

Compassion (karuṇā) practices are also particularly important in Tibetan Buddhism. One of the foremost authoritative texts on the Bodhisattva path is the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra by Shantideva. In the eighth section entitled Meditative Concentration, Shantideva describes meditation on Karunā as thus:

Strive at first to meditate upon the sameness of yourself and others. In joy and sorrow all are equal; Thus be guardian of all, as of yourself. The hand and other limbs are many and distinct, But all are one--the body to kept and guarded. Likewise, different beings, in their joys and sorrows, are, like me, all one in wanting happiness. This pain of mine does not afflict or cause discomfort to another's body, and yet this pain is hard for me to bear because I cling and take it for my own. And other beings' pain I do not feel, and yet, because I take them for myself, their suffering is mine and therefore hard to bear. And therefore I'll dispel the pain of others, for it is simply pain, just like my own. And others I will aid and benefit, for they are living beings, like my body. Since I and other beings both, in wanting happiness, are equal and alike, what difference is there to distinguish us, that I should strive to have my bliss alone?'^[102]

A popular compassion meditation in Tibetan Buddhism is Tonglen (sending and taking love and suffering respectively). Practices associated with Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara), also tend to focus on compassion.

Samatha and Vipaśyanā[edit]

The 14th Dalai Lama defines meditation (bsgom pa) as 'familiarization of the mind with an object of meditation.'^[103] Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhism follows the two main approaches to meditation or mental cultivation (bhavana) as taught in all forms of Buddhism, śamatha (Tib. Shine) and vipaśyanā (lhaktong).

The practice of śamatha (calm abiding) is one of focusing one's mind on a single object such as a Buddha figure or the breath. Through repeated practice one's mind gradually becomes more stable, calm and happy. It is defined by Takpo Tashi Namgyal as 'fixing the mind upon any object so as to maintain it without distraction...focusing the mind on an object and maintaining it in that state until finally it is channeled into one stream of attention and evenness.'^[104] The nine mental abidings is the main progressive framework used for śamatha in Tibetan Buddhism.^[105] Once a meditator has reached the ninth level of this schema they achieve what is termed 'pliancy' (Tib. shin tu sbyangs pa, Skt. prasrabdhi), defined as 'a serviceability of mind and body such that the mind can be set on a virtuous object of observation as long as one likes; it has the function of removing all obstructions.' This is also said to be very joyful and blissful for the body and the mind.^[106]

The other form of Buddhist meditation is vipaśyanā (clear seeing, higher insight), which in Tibetan Buddhism is generally practiced after having attained proficiency in śamatha.^[107] This is generally seen as having two aspects, one of which is analytic meditation, thinking rationally about ideas and concepts in a scholarly or philosophical manner. As part of this process, entertaining doubts and engaging in internal debate over them is encouraged in some traditions.^[108] The other type of vipaśyanā is a non-analytical, 'simple' yogic style called trömeh in Tibetan, which means 'without complication'.^[109]

A meditation routine may involve alternating sessions of vipaśyanā to achieve deeper levels of realization, and samatha to consolidate them.^[59]

Preliminary practices[edit]

Vajrayāna is believed by Tibetan Buddhists to be the fastest method for attaining Buddhahood but for unqualified practitioners it can be dangerous.^[110] To engage in it one must receive an appropriate initiation (also known as an 'empowerment') from a lama who is fully qualified to give it. The aim of preliminary practices (ngöndro) is to start the student on the correct path for such higher teachings.^[111] Just as Sutrayāna preceded Vajrayāna historically in India, so sutra practices constitute those that are preliminary to tantric ones. Preliminary practices include all Sutrayāna activities that yield merit like hearing teachings, prostrations, offerings, prayers and acts of kindness and compassion, but chief among the preliminary practices are realizations through meditation on the three principle stages of the path: renunciation, the altruistic bodhicitta wish to attain enlightenment and the wisdom realizing emptiness. For a person without the basis of these three in particular to practice Vajrayāna can be like a small child trying to ride an unbroken horse.^[112]

The most widespread preliminary practices include: taking refuge, prostration, Vajrasattva meditation, mandala offering and guru yoga.^[113]

The merit acquired in the preliminary practices facilitates progress in Vajrayāna. While many Buddhists may spend a lifetime exclusively on sutra practices, however, an amalgam of the two to some degree is common. For example, in order to train in calm abiding, one might use a tantric visualisation as the meditation object.

Guru yoga[edit]

As in other Buddhist traditions, an attitude of reverence for the teacher, or guru, is also highly prized.^[114] At the beginning of a public teaching, a lama will do prostrations to the throne on which he will teach due to its symbolism, or to an image of the Buddha behind that throne, then students will do prostrations to the lama after he is seated. Merit accrues when one's interactions with the teacher are imbued with such reverence in the form of guru devotion, a code of practices governing them that derives from Indian sources.^[115] By such things as avoiding disturbance to the peace of mind of one's teacher, and wholeheartedly following his prescriptions, much merit accrues and this can significantly help improve one's practice.

There is a general sense in which any Tibetan Buddhist teacher is called a lama. A student may have taken teachings from many authorities and revere them all as lamas in this general sense. However, he will typically have one held in special esteem as his own root guru and is encouraged to view the other teachers who are less dear to him, however more exalted their status, as embodied in and subsumed by the root guru.^[116]

One particular feature of the Tantric view of teacher student relationship is that in Tibetan Buddhist Tantra, one is instructed to regard one's guru as an awakened Buddha.^[117]

Esotericism and vows[edit]

In Vajrayāna particularly, Tibetan Buddhists subscribe to a voluntary code of self-censorship, whereby the uninitiated do not seek and are not provided with information about it. This self-censorship may be applied more or less strictly depending on circumstances such as the material involved. A depiction of a mandala may be less public than that of a deity. That of a higher tantric deity may be less public than that of a lower. The degree to which information on Vajrayāna is now public in western languages is controversial among Tibetan Buddhists.

Buddhism has always had a taste for esotericism since its earliest period in India.^[118] Tibetans today maintain greater or lesser degrees of confidentiality also with information on the vinaya and emptiness specifically. In Buddhist teachings generally, too, there is caution about revealing information to people who may be unready for it.

Practicing tantra also includes the maintaining of a separate set of vows, which are called Samaya (dam tshig). There are various lists of these and they may differ depending on the practice and one's lineage or individual guru. Upholding these vows is said to be essential for tantric practice and breaking them is said to cause great harm.^[119]

Rites and rituals[edit]

There has been a 'close association' between the religious and the secular, the spiritual and the temporal^[120] in Tibet. The term for this relationship is chos srid zung 'brel. Traditionally Tibetan lamas have tended to the lay populace by helping them with issues such as protection and prosperity. Common traditions have been the various rites and rituals for mundane ends, such as purifying one's karma, avoiding harm from demonic forces and enemies, and promoting a successful harvest.^[121]Divination and exorcism are examples of practices a lama might use for this.^[122]

Ritual is generally more elaborate than in other forms of Buddhism, with complex altar arrangements and works of art (such as mandalas and thangkas), many ritual objects, hand gestures (mudra), chants, and musical instruments.^[72]

A special kind of ritual called an initiation or empowerment (Sanskrit: Abhiseka, Tibetan: Wangkur) is central to Tantric practice. These rituals consecrate a practitioner into a particular Tantric practice associated with individual mandalas of deities and mantras. Without having gone through initiation, one is generally not allowed to practice the higher Tantras.^[123]

Another important ritual occasion in Tibetan Buddhism is that of mortuary rituals which are supposed to assure that one has a positive rebirth and a good spiritual path in the future.^[124] Of central importance to Tibetan Buddhist Ars moriendi is the idea of the Bardo (Sanskrit: antarābhava), the intermediate or liminal state between life and death.^[124] Rituals and the readings of texts such as the Bardo Thodol are done to ensure that the dying person can navigate this intermediate state skillfully. Cremation and sky burial are traditionally the main funeral rites used to dispose of the body.^[39]

Mantra[edit]

The use of (mainly Sanskrit) prayer formulas, incantations or phrases called mantras (Tibetan: sngags) is another widespread feature of Tibetan Buddhist practice.^[117] So common is the use of mantras that Vajrayana is also sometimes called 'Mantrayāna' (the mantra vehicle). Mantras are widely recited, chanted, written or inscribed, and visualized as part of different forms of meditation. Each mantra has symbolic meaning and will often have a connection to a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva.^[125] Each deity's mantra is seen as symbolizing the function, speech and power of the deity.^[126] Tibetan Buddhist practitioners repeat mantras in order to train the mind, and transform their thoughts in line with the divine qualities of the mantra's deity and special power.^[127]

Tibetan Buddhists see the etymology of the term mantra as meaning 'mind protector', and mantras is seen as a way to guard the mind against negativity.^[128] According to Lama Zopa Rinpoche:

Mantras are effective because they help keep your mind quiet and peaceful, automatically integrating it into one-pointedness. They make your mind receptive to very subtle vibrations and thereby heighten your perception. Their recitation eradicates gross negativities and the true nature of things can then be reflected in your mind’s resulting clarity. By practising a transcendental mantra, you can in fact purify all the defiled energy of your body, speech, and mind.^[129]

Mantras also serve to focus the mind as a samatha (calming) practice as well as a way to transform the mind through the symbolic meaning of the mantra. In Buddhism, it is important to have the proper intention, focus and faith when practicing mantras, if one does not, they will not work. Unlike in Hinduism, mantras are not believed to have inherent power of their own, and thus without the proper faith, intention and mental focus, they are just mere sounds.^[130] Thus according to the Tibetan philosopher Jamgon Ju Mipham:

if a mantra is thought to be something ordinary and not seen for what it is, it will not be able to perform its intended function. Mantras are like non-conceptual wish-fulfilling jewels. Infusing one's being with the blessings of mantra, like the form of a moon reflected on a body of water, necessitates the presence of faith and other conditions that set the stage for the spiritual attainments of mantra. Just as the moon's reflection cannot appear without water, mantras cannot function without the presence of faith and other such factors in one's being.^[131]

Mantras are part of the highest tantric practices in Tibetan Buddhism, such as Deity Yoga and are recited and visualized during tantric sadhanas. Thus, Tsongkhapa says that mantra 'protects the mind from ordinary appearances and conceptions'.^[132] This is because in Tibetan Buddhist Tantric praxis, one must develop a sense that everything is divine.

Tantric Yoga[edit]

In what is called higher yoga tantra the emphasis is on various yoga practices which allow the practitioner to realize the true nature of reality.^[74]

Deity Yoga (Tibetan: lha'i rnal 'byor; Sanskrit: Devata-yoga) is a fundamental practice of VajrayanaBuddhism involving visualization of mental images consisting mainly of Buddhist deities such as Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and fierce deities, along mantra repetition. According to Geoffrey Samuel:

If Buddhahood is a source of infinite potentiality accessible at any time, then the Tantric deities are in a sense partial aspects, refractions of that total potentiality. Visualizing one of these deities, or oneself identifying with one of them, is not, in Tibetan Tantric thought, a technique to worship an external entity. Rather, it is a way of accessing or tuning into something that is an intrinsic part of the structure of the universe — as of course is the practitioner him or herself.^[133]

Deity yoga involves two stages, the generation stage and the completion stage. In the generation stage, one dissolves the mundane world and visualizes one's chosen deity (yidam), its mandala and companion deities, resulting in identification with this divine reality.^[134] In the completion stage, one dissolves the visualization of and identification with the yidam in the realization of sunyata or emptiness.

Completion stage practices can also include subtle body energy practices,^[135] as well as other practices such as the Six Yogas of Naropa.

Tibetan Buddhism In America

The views and practices associated with Dzogchen and Mahamudra are often seen as the culmination of the tantric path.^[136] These practices focus on the very nature of reality and experience, termed dharmakaya or rigpa.

Institutions and Clergy[edit]

Buddhist monasticism is an important part of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, all the major and minor schools maintain large monastic institutions based on the MulasarvastivadaVinaya (monastic rule) and many religious leaders come from the monastic community. That being said, there are also many religious leaders or teachers (called Lamas and Gurus) which are not celibate monastics. According to Geoffrey Samuel this is where 'religious leadership in Tibetan Buddhism contrasts most strongly with much of the rest of the Buddhist world.'^[137] Lamas are generally skilled and experienced tantric practitioners and ritual specialists in a specific initiation lineage and may be laypersons or monastics. They act not just as teachers, but as spiritual guides and guardians of the lineage teachings that they have received through a long and intimate process of apprenticeship with their Lamas.^[138]

Tibetan Buddhism also includes a number of lay clergy and lay tantric specialists, such as Ngagpas (Skt. mantrī), Gomchens, Serkyims, and Chödpas (practitioners of Chöd). According to Samuel, in the more remote parts of the Himalayas, communities were often led by lay religious specialists.^[139] Thus, while the large monastic institutions were present in the regions of the Tibetan plateau which were more centralized politically, in other regions they were absent and instead smaller gompas and more lay oriented communities prevailed.^[140]

Samuel outlines four main types of religious communities in Tibet:^[141]

• Small communities of lay practitioners attached to a temple and a lama. Lay practitioners might stay in the gompa for periodic retreats.
• Small communities of celibate monastics attached to a temple and a lama, often part of a village.
• Medium to large communities of celibate monastics. These could maintain several hundred monks and might have extensive land holdings, be financially independent, and sometimes also act as trading centers.
• Large teaching monasteries with thousands of monks, such as the big Gelug establishments of Sera (with over 6000 monks in the first half of the 20th century) and Drepung (over 7000).^[142]

In some cases a lama is the leader of a spiritual community. Some lamas gain their title through being part of particular family which maintains a lineage of hereditary lamas (and are thus often laypersons). One example is the Sakya family of Kon, who founded the Sakya school and another is the hereditary lamas of Mindrolling monastery.^[143]

In other cases, lamas may be seen as 'Tülkus' ('incarnations'). Tülkus are figures which are recognized as reincarnations of a particular bodhisattva or a previous religious figure. They are often recognized from a young age through the use of divination and the use of the possessions of the deceased lama, and therefore are able to receive extensive training. They are sometimes groomed to become leaders of monastic institutions.^[144] Examples include the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas, each of which are seen as key leaders in their respective traditions.

The system of incarnate lamas is popularly held to be a Tibetan alteration to the original buddism.

Another title unique to Tibetan Buddhism is that of Tertön (treasure discoverer), who are considered capable of revealing or discovering special revelations or texts called Termas (lit. 'hidden treasure'). They are also associated with the idea of beyul ('hidden valleys'), which are power places associated with deities and hidden religious treasures.^[145]

Women in Tibetan Buddhism[edit]

Women in Tibetan society, though still unequal, tended to have a relatively greater autonomy and power than in surrounding societies. This might be because of the smaller household sizes and low population density in Tibet.^[146] Women traditionally took many roles in Tibetan Buddhism, from lay supporters, to monastics, lamas and tantric practitioners.

There is evidence for the importance of female practitioners in Indian Tantric Buddhism and pre-modern Tibetan Buddhism. At least one major lineage of tantric teachings, the Shangpa Kagyu, traces itself to Indian female teachers and there have been a series of important female Tibetan teachers, such as Yeshe Tsogyal and Machig Labdrön.^[147] It seems that even though it might have been more difficult for women to become serious tantric yoginis, it was still possible for them to find lamas that would teach them high tantric practices.

Some Tibetan women become lamas by being born in one of the hereditary lama families such as Mindrolling Jetsün Khandro Rinpoche and Sakya Jetsün Kushok Chimey Luding.^[148] There have also been cases of influential female lamas who were also tertöns, such as Sera Khandro, Tare Lhamo and Ayu Khandro.

Some of these figures were also tantric consorts (sangyum, kandroma) with male lamas, and thus took part in the sexual practices associated with the highest levels of tantric practice.^[149]

Nuns[edit]

While monasticism is practiced there by women, it is much less common (2 percent of the population in the 20th century compared to 12 percent of men). Nuns were also much less respected by Tibetan society than monks and may receive less lay support than male monastics.^[150]

Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist nuns were also not 'fully ordained' as bhikṣuṇīs (who take the full set of monastic vows in the Vinaya). When Buddhism traveled from India to Tibet, apparently the quorum of bhikṣuṇīs required for bestowing full ordination never reached Tibet.^{[151][note 4]} Despite an absence of ordination there, bhikṣuṇīs did travel to Tibet. A notable example was the Sri Lankan nun Candramāla, whose work with Śrījñāna (Wylie: dpal ye shes) resulted in the tantric text Śrīcandramāla Tantrarāja.^{[note 5][152]}

There are accounts of fully ordained Tibetan women, such as the Samding Dorje Phagmo (1422-1455), who was once ranked the highest female master and tulku in Tibet, but very little is known about the exact circumstances of their ordination.^[153]

In the modern era, Tibetan Buddhist nuns have taken full ordinations through East Asian Vinaya lineages.^[154] The Dalai Lama has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination.^{[note 6]}

Western nuns and lamas[edit]

Buddhist author Michaela Haas notes that Tibetan Buddhism is undergoing a sea change in the West, with women playing a much more central role.^[157]

Freda Bedi^{[note 7]} was a British woman who was the first Western woman to take ordination in Tibetan Buddhism, which occurred in 1966.^[158]Pema Chödrön was the first American woman to be ordained as a Buddhist nun in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition.^[159][160]

In 2010 the first Tibetan Buddhist nunnery in America, Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont, was officially consecrated. It offers novice ordination and follows the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism. The abbot of the Vajra Dakini nunnery is Khenmo Drolma, an American woman, who is the first bhikṣuṇī in the Drikung lineage of Buddhism, having been ordained in Taiwan in 2002.^[161][162] She is also the first westerner, male or female, to be installed as an abbot in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism, having been installed as the abbot of the Vajra Dakini Nunnery in 2004.^[161] The Vajra Dakini Nunnery does not follow The Eight Garudhammas.^[163]

In April 2011, the Institute for Buddhist Dialectical Studies (IBD) in Dharamsala, India, conferred the degree of geshe, a Tibetan Buddhist academic degree for monastics, on Kelsang Wangmo, a German nun, thus making her the world's first female geshe.^[164][165] In 2013 Tibetan women were able to take the geshe exams for the first time.^[166] In 2016 twenty Tibetan Buddhist nuns became the first Tibetan women to earn geshe degrees.^[167][168]

Jetsunma Ahkon Lhamo gained international attention in the late 1980s as the first Western woman to be a His Holininess Penor Rinpoche enthroned tulku within the NyingmaPalyul.^[169]

Schools and lineages[edit]

Major Lineages[edit]

The Tibetan Rime (non-sectarian) scholar Jamgon Kongtrul, in his Treasury of Knowledge, outlines the 'Eight Great Practice Lineages' which were transmitted to Tibet. His approach is not concerned with 'schools' or sects, but rather focuses on the transmission of crucial meditation teachings. They are:^[170]

1. The Nyingma traditions, associated with the first transmission figures such as Shantarakshita, Padmasambhava and King Trisong Deutsen and with Dzogchen teachings.
2. The Kadam Lineage, associated with Atisha and his pupil Dromtön (1005–1064).
3. Lamdré, traced back to the Indian Mahasiddha Virupa, and today preserved in the Sakya school.
4. Marpa Kagyu, the lineage which stems from Marpa, Milarepa and Gampopa, practices Mahamudra and the Six Dharmas of Naropa, and includes the four major and eight minor Kagyu lineages.
5. Shangpa Kagyu, the lineage of Niguma
6. Shyijé and Chöd which originate from Padampa Sangyé and Machig Labdrön.
7. Dorje Naljor Druk (the 'Six Branch Practice of Vajrayoga') which is derived from the Kalachakra lineage.
8. Dorje sumgyi nyendrup ('Approach and Accomplishment of the Three Vajras'), from the mahasiddha Orgyenpa Rinchen Pal.

Tibetan Buddhist Schools[edit]

There are various schools or traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. The four main traditions ones overlap markedly, such that 'about eighty percent or more of the features of the Tibetan schools are the same'.^[171] Differences include the use of apparently, but not actually, contradictory terminology, opening dedications of texts to different deities and whether phenomena are described from the viewpoint of an unenlightened practitioner or of a Buddha.^[171] On questions of philosophy, there has historically been disagreement regarding the nature of Yogacara and Buddha-nature teachings (and whether these are of expedient meaning or ultimate meaning), which still colours the current presentations of sunyata (emptiness) and ultimate reality.^{[172][83][84]}

The 19th century Rimé movement downplayed these differences, as still reflected in the stance of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who states that there are no fundamental differences between these schools.^[173] However, there are still philosophical disagreements between the different traditions, such as the debate regarding rangtong and shentong interpretations of Madhyamaka philosophy.^[174]

The four major schools are sometimes divided into the Nyingma 'Old Translation,' and Sarma 'New Translation' traditions, which follow different canons of scripture (the Nyingma Gyubum along with Termas and the Tengyur-Kangyur respectively). Each school also traces itself to a certain lineage going back to India as well as certain important Tibetan founders. While all the schools share most practices and methods, each school tends to have a certain preferred focus (see table below).

Another common but trivial differentiation is into the Yellow Hat (Gelug) and Red Hat (non-Gelug) sects.

The features of each major school (along with one influential minor school, Jonang) is as follows:^[175]

Nyingma[edit]

'The Ancient Ones' is the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism and the original order founded by Padmasambhava (8th century) and Śāntarakṣita (725–788).^[11] Whereas other schools categorize their teachings into the three yānas or 'vehicles', Hīnayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, the Nyingma tradition classifies its teachings into Nine Yānas, among the highest of which is Dzogchen.^[176]

Terma 'treasures' (revealed texts) are of particular significance to the Nyingma school. One of the most influential terma cycles is the Longchen Nyingthig which was revealed by Jigme Lingpa (1730–1798).

Sakya[edit]

The 'Grey Earth' school represents one of the first Sarma (new translation) scholarly traditions. Headed by the Sakya Trizin, this tradition was founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo (Wylie: 'khon dkon mchog rgyal po, 1034–1102), a disciple of the great Lotsawa, Drogmi Shākya (Wylie: brog mi lo tsā wa ye shes) and traces its lineage to the mahasiddha Virūpa.^[11] A renowned exponent, Sakya Pandita (1182–1251CE), was the great-grandson of Khön Könchok Gyelpo.Sakyapa, the last one, was named because of the Sakya Monastery, of which the wall was painted into Red, White, and Cyan.

Bodong[edit]

The Bodong school is one of the minor schools, being much smaller and less influential than the four main schools. This tradition was founded in 1049 by the Kadam teacher Mudra Chenpo, who also established the Bodong E Monastery. Its most famous teacher was Bodong Penchen Lénam Gyelchok (1376-1451) who authored over one hundred and thirty-five volumes.

This tradition is also known for maintaining a female tulku lineage of incarnated lamas called the Samding Dorje Phagmo.

Kagyu[edit]

Kagyu means 'oral transmission' and consists of a series of lineages which all trace themselves back to Indian mahasiddhas like Saraha and Tilopa. Its most famous Tibetan exponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic. It is often divided into the larger Dagpo Kagyu and the smaller Shangpa Kagyu lineage

The Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to the Indian master Naropa via Marpa Lotsawa, Milarepa and Gampopa^[11] and consists of four major sub-sects: the Karma Kagyu, headed by a Karmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu. There are a further eight minor sub-sects, all of which trace their root to Pagtru Kagyu's founder, Phagmo Drupa. The most notable of these are the Drikung and Drukpa Lineages.

The once-obscure Shangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th century teacher Kalu Rinpoche, traces its history back to the Indian female siddhas Niguma and Sukhasiddhi, transmitted to Tibet via Khyungpo Naljor in the 11th century.^[11]

Jonang[edit]

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The Jonang is a minor school which can be traced to early 12th century master Yumo Mikyo Dorje, but was popularized by the influential master Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen (1292–1361).

The Jonang re-established their religio-political center in Golok, Nakhi and Mongol areas in Kham and Amdo centered at Dzamthang Monastery and have continued practicing uninterrupted to this day. The tradition was suppressed in 1650 in Gelug-controlled regions and subsequently banned and its monks and nuns converted to the Gelug school in 1658. An estimated 5,000 monks and nuns of the Jonang tradition practice today in these areas and at the edges of historic Gelug influence.

However, their teachings were limited to these regions until the Rimé movement of the 19th century encouraged the study of non-Gelug schools of thought and practice.^[177] In modern times it has been encouraged to grow by the 14th Dalai Lama, who installed the 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu as its head.

Gelug[edit]

The 'Way of Virtue' school was originally a reformist movement and is known for its emphasis on logic and debate. The order was founded in the 14th to 15th century by Je Tsongkhapa, renowned for both his scholarship and virtue. He was a prominent supporter of the Madhyamika philosophy and formalized the Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction. Its spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and its temporal one the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama is regarded as the embodiment of Avalokiteśvara. After the civil war in the 17th century and the Mongol intervention, the Gelugpa school dominated Tibetan Buddhism, and successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries.Gelugpa is the youngest but largest sect of Tibetan Buddhism. People also call it the Yellow Sect due to the hat they wear is yellow color. The founder of Gelugpa is Tsongkhapa, a great master. The discipline of Gelugpa is very strict. Followers could not get married, could not eat meat, could not drink alcoholic beverages. Most of the famous monasteries in Tibet admire Gelugpa, such as Ganden Monastery, Drepung Monastery, Sera Monastery in Lhasa, and Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse.

Yungdrung Bon[edit]

While Yungdrung Bon considers itself a separate religion with pre-Buddhist origins, and it is considered as non-Buddhist by the main Tibetan traditions, it shares so many similarities and practices with mainstream Tibetan Buddhism that some scholars such as Geoffrey Samuel see it as 'essentially a variant of Tibetan Buddhism'.^[178] It is much more related to Nyingma Buddhism, and includes Dzogchen teachings, similar deities, rituals and forms of monasticism.

Glossary of terms used[edit]

See also[edit]

• Pure Land Buddhism (Tibetan)

Notes[edit]

1. ^和尚摩訶衍; his name consists of the same Chinese characters used to transliterate “Mahayana”) (Tibetan: Hwa shang Mahayana)
2. ^Kamalaśīla wrote the three Bhāvanākrama texts (修習次第三篇) after that.
3. ^However, a Chinese source found in Dunhuang written by Mo-ho-yen says their side won, and some scholars conclude that the entire episode is fictitious.^[14][15]
4. ^Under the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, as with the two other extant Vinaya lineages today (Theravada and Dharmaguptaka), in order to ordain bhikṣuṇīs, there must be quorums of both bhikṣuṇīs and bhikṣus; without both, a woman cannot be ordained as a nun (Tibetan: དགེ་སློང་མ་, THL: gélongma).
5. ^Tibetan: དཔལ་ཟླ་བའི་ཕྲེང་བའི་རྒྱུད་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་པོ, Chinese: 吉祥月鬘本續王
6. ^According to Thubten Chodron, the current Dalai Lama has said on this issue:^[155]
   1. In 2005, the Dalai Lama repeatedly spoke about the bhikṣuṇī ordination in public gatherings. In Dharamsala, he encouraged, 'We need to bring this to a conclusion. We Tibetans alone can't decide this. Rather, it should be decided in collaboration with Buddhists from all over the world. Speaking in general terms, were the Buddha to come to this 21st century world, I feel that most likely, seeing the actual situation in the world now, he might change the rules somewhat....'
   2. Later, in Zürich during a 2005 conference of Tibetan Buddhist Centers, he said, 'Now I think the time has come; we should start a working group or committee' to meet with monks from other Buddhist traditions. Looking at the German bhikṣuṇī Jampa Tsedroen, he instructed, 'I prefer that Western Buddhist nuns carry out this work… Go to different places for further research and discuss with senior monks (from various Buddhist countries). I think, first, senior bhikshunis need to correct the monks' way of thinking.
   3. 'This is the 21st century. Everywhere we are talking about equality….Basically Buddhism needs equality. There are some really minor things to remember as a Buddhist--a bhikshu always goes first, then a bhikshuni….The key thing is the restoration of the bhikshuni vow.'
   Alexander Berzin referred to the Dalai Lama having said on occasion of the 2007 Hamburg congress:

   Sometimes in religion there has been an emphasis on male importance. In Buddhism, however, the highest vows, namely the bhikshu and bhikshuni ones, are equal and entail the same rights. This is the case despite the fact that in some ritual areas, due to social custom, bhikshus go first. But Buddha gave the basic rights equally to both sangha groups. There is no point in discussing whether or not to revive the bhikshuni ordination; the question is merely how to do so properly within the context of the Vinaya.^[156]

7. ^Sometimes spelled Frida Bedi, also named Sister Palmo, or Gelongma Karma Kechog Palmo

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

1. ^White, David Gordon (ed.) (2000). Tantra in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 21. ISBN0-691-05779-6.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
2. ^Powers, John (2007). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism (Rev. ed.). Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications. pp. 392–3, 415. ISBN978-1-55939-282-2.
3. ^Dzogchen Ponlop, Wild Awakening: The Heart of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, Glossary.
4. ^ ^abPowers, John; Templeman, David (2012). Historical Dictionary of Tibet, Scarecrow Press, p. 566.
   
5. ^Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (1999). Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 6, 19f. ISBN0-226-49311-3.
6. ^Damien Keown, ed., 'Lamaism', A Dictionary of Buddhism (Oxford, 2004): 'an obsolete term formerly used by Western scholars to denote the specifically Tibetan form of Buddhism due to the prominence of the lamas in the religious culture. . . should be avoided as it is misleading as well as disliked by Tibetans.' Robert E. Buswell Jr. and David S. Lopez Jr., eds., 'Lamaism', The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton, 2017): 'an obsolete English term that has no correlate in Tibetan. . . Probably derived from the Chinese term lama jiao, or 'teachings of the lamas', the term is considered pejorative by Tibetans, as it carries the negative connotation that the Tibetan tradition is something distinct from the mainstream of Buddhism.' John Bowker, ed., 'Lamaism', The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (Oxford, 2000): 'a now antiquated term used by early W[estern] commentators (as L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, or Lamaism, 1895) to describe Tibetan Buddhism. Although the term is not accurate [it] does at least convey the great emphasis placed on the role of the spiritual teacher by this religion.'
7. ^Conze, 1993
8. ^Snellgrove, David (1987). Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Indian Buddhists & Their Tibetan Successors, Vol.2. Boston: Shambala Publications. ISBN0-87773-379-1.
9. ^Berzin, Alexander, A Survey of Tibetan History
10. ^Beckwith, C.I.: The revolt of 755 in Tibet, in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 273-285 (discusses the political background and the motives of the ruler).
11. ^ ^abcdefgBerzin. Alexander (2000). How Did Tibetan Buddhism Develop?: StudyBuddhism.com
12. ^定解宝灯论新月释Archived 2013-11-02 at the Wayback Machine
13. ^Yamaguchi, Zuihō (undated). The Core Elements of Indian Buddhism Introduced into Tibet: A Contrast with Japanese Buddhism. Source: Thezensite.com (accessed: October 20, 2007)
14. ^敦煌唐代写本顿悟大乘正理决Archived 2013-11-01 at the Wayback Machine
15. ^Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), page 70
16. ^Shakabpa. pp. 53, 173.
17. ^Samuel 2012, p. 10.
18. ^Samuel 2012, pp. 12-13, 32.
19. ^Berzin, Alexander. The Four Traditions of Tibetan Buddhism: Personal Experience, History, and Comparisons
20. ^Conze, 1993, 104ff
21. ^Shakabpa. p.61: 'thirty thousand troops, under the command of Leje and Dorta, reached Phanpo, north of Lhasa.'
22. ^Sanders. p. 309, his grandson Godan Khan invaded Tibet with 30000 men and destroyed several Buddhist monasteries north of Lhasa
23. ^Buell, ibid. p.194: Shakabpa, 1967 pp.61-2.
24. ^'How Tibet Emerged Within the Wider Chinese Power-Political Zone'. Long Revolution. 2015-04-18. Retrieved 2018-03-23.
25. ^Wylie 1990, p. 104.
26. ^'To counterbalance the political power of the lama, Khubilai appointed civil administrators at the Sa-skya to supervise the mongol regency.'
27. ^ ^abThe Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art, by John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel, Robert A. F. Thurman, p48
28. ^Powers 2007, p. 162.
29. ^Rossabi 1983, p. 194
30. ^Petech, L. Central Tibet and The Mongols. (Serie Orientale Roma 65). Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente 1990: 85–143
31. ^Robinson, David M. (2008) The Ming Court and the Legacy of the Yuan Mongols. in Culture, Courtiers and Competition, The Ming Court (1368-1644)
32. ^Silk, Jonathan. Notes on the history of the Yongle Kanjur. Indica et Tibetica 28, Suhrllekhah. Festgabe für Helmut Eimer, 1998.
33. ^Patrick Taveirne (1 January 2004). Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911. Leuven University Press. pp. 67–. ISBN978-90-5867-365-7.
34. ^Emblems of Empire: Selections from the Mactaggart Art Collection, by John E. Vollmer, Jacqueline Simcox, p154
35. ^Weidner, Marsha Smith. Cultural Intersections in Later Chinese Buddhism, p. 173.
36. ^Lopez, Donald S. (1998). Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 190
37. ^Schaik, Sam van. Tibet: A History. Yale University Press 2011, page 165-9.
38. ^Schaik, Sam van. Tibet: A History. Yale University Press 2011, page 169.
39. ^ ^abKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 100.
40. ^Bianchi, Ester. The Tantric Rebirth Movement in Modern China, Esoteric Buddhism re-vivified by the Japanese and Tibetan traditions. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung. Volume 57 (1), 31–54 (2004)
41. ^ ^abKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 108.
42. ^Cantwell, Cathy; Kawanami, Hiroko (2016). Religions in the Modern World (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 91. ISBN978-0-415-85881-6.
43. ^ ^abKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 110.
44. ^Samuel 2012, p. 238.
45. ^Kapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 109.
46. ^The 2007 U.S. State Department report on religious freedom in Bhutan notes that 'Mahayana Buddhism is the state religion...' and that the Bhutanese government supports both the Kagyu and Nyingma sects. State.gov
47. ^ ^abSamuel 2012, p. 240.
48. ^Samuel 2012, pp. 242-243.
49. ^Bruce A (ed). One World – Many Paths to Peace ANU E-Press 2009 (launched by the 14th Dalai Lama) (accessed 11 May 2013)
50. ^Samuel, Geoffrey; Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion, page 303 - 304
51. ^Powers 2007, pp. 65, 71, 75.
52. ^Powers 2007, pp. 102.
53. ^Cf. Dhargyey (1978), 111; Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 533f; Tsong-kha-pa II: 48-9
54. ^Thurman, Robert (1997). Essential Tibetan Buddhism. Castle Books: 291
55. ^Samuel 2012, p. 75.
56. ^Cf. Dhargyey (1978), 64f; Dhargyey (1982), 257f, etc; Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 364f; Tsong-kha-pa II: 183f. The former are the afflictions, negative states of mind, and the three poisons – desire, anger, and ignorance. The latter are subtle imprints, traces or 'stains' of delusion that involves the imagination of inherent existence.
57. ^Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 152f
58. ^Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 243, 258
59. ^ ^abHopkins (1996)
60. ^Dhargyey (1978), 61f; Dhargyey (1982), 242-266; Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 365
61. ^Thurman, Robert (1997): 2-3
62. ^Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 252f
63. ^Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 367
64. ^Dhargyey (1978), 74; Dhargyey (1982), 3, 303f; Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 13f, 280f; Berzin, Alexander (2002). Hinayana and Mahayana: Comparison
65. ^Samuel 2012, p. 54.
66. ^Powers 2007, pp. 93-96
67. ^The Sakya school, too, has a somewhat similar textual form, the lamdré.
68. ^Lamrim: the Gradual Path to Enlightenment
69. ^Kapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 52-53.
70. ^ ^abcPowers, 2007, p. 250.
71. ^Samuel 2012, p. 69.
72. ^ ^abKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 82.
73. ^Snellgrove, David. (1987) Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their Tibetan successors. pp 125-126.
74. ^ ^abKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 83.
75. ^Cornu 2001, p. 145, 150.
76. ^Cornu 2001, p. 135.
77. ^ ^abcdKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 67.
78. ^Cornu 2001, p. 136.
79. ^Cornu 2001, p. 146-147.
80. ^Cornu 2001, p. 138.
81. ^ ^abCornu 2001, p. 145.
82. ^Hookam 1991.
83. ^ ^abBrunnhölzl 2004.
84. ^ ^abCornu 2001.
85. ^Sopa & Hopkins (1977), 67-69; Hopkins (1996).
86. ^Cf. Conze (1993).
87. ^Kapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 63.
88. ^Samuel 2012, pp. 19-20.
89. ^Orzech, Charles D. (general editor), 2011. Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill, p. 540.
90. ^Samuel 2012, p. 21.
91. ^Powers 2007, p. 103-104
92. ^Luis O. Gomez and Jonathan A. Silk, Studies in the Literature of the Great Vehicle: Three Mahayana Buddhist Texts. Ann Arbor 1989 pgs viii
93. ^Kapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 64.
94. ^Samuel 2012, p. 20.
95. ^'Yoginitantras are in the secondary literature often called Anuttarayoga. But this is based on a mistaken back translation of the Tibetan translation (rnal byor bla med kyi rgyud) of what appears in Sanskrit texts only as Yogānuttara or Yoganiruttara (cf. SANDERSON 1994: 97-98, fn.1).”Isabelle Onians, 'Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm,' D.Phil. dissertation, Oxford, Trinity Term 2001. pg 70
96. ^Samuel 2012, p. 32.
97. ^Samuel 2012, p. 78.
98. ^Conze (1993): 26
99. ^Powers 2007, p. 271.
100. ^Samuel 2012, p. 50.
101. ^Kapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 45-46.
102. ^The Way of the Bodhisattva by Shantideva. Shambhala Publications. Page 122-123
103. ^Powers 2007, p. 81.
104. ^Powers 2007, p. 86.
105. ^Powers 2007, p. 88.
106. ^Powers 2007, p. 90.
107. ^Powers 2007, p. 91.
108. ^khri byang blo bzang ye shes bstan ʼdzin rgya mtsho 2006, p. 66, 212f.
109. ^The Practice of Tranquillity & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Meditation by Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche. Shambhala Publications: 1994. ISBN0-87773-943-9 pg 91-93
110. ^Pabonka, p.649
111. ^Kalu Rinpoche (1986), The Gem Ornament of Manifold Instructions. Snow Lion, p. 21.
112. ^Pabongkhapa Déchen Nyingpo, 649
113. ^Powers 2007, p. 295.
114. ^Lama is the literal Tibetan translation of the Sanskrit guru. For a traditional perspective on devotion to the guru, see Tsong-ka-pa I, 77-87. For a current perspective on the guru-disciple relationship in Tibetan Buddhism, see Berzin, Alexander. Relating to a Spiritual Teacher: Building a Healthy Relationship
115. ^notably, Gurupancasika, Tib.: Lama Ngachupa, Wylie: bla-ma lnga-bcu-pa, 'Fifty Verses of Guru-Devotion' by Aśvaghoṣa
116. ^Indian tradition (Cf. Saddharmapundarika Sutra II, 124) encourages the student to view the guru as representative of the Buddha himself.
117. ^ ^abKapstein, Matthew T. Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 80.
118. ^Cf. Conze (1993), 26 and 52f.
119. ^Powers 2007, p. 315.
120. ^Cueppers, Christoph. 'The Relationship Between Religion and State (chos srid zung 'brel) In Traditional Tibet'.Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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• Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Revised Edition (2007) Snow Lion Publications. ISBN978-1559392822
• Ringu Tulku (2006). The Ri-Me Philosophy of Jamgon Kongtrul the Great: A Study of the Buddhist Lineages of Tibet. Shambhala. ISBN1-59030-286-9.
• Samuel, Geoffrey (2012), Introducing Tibetan Buddhism, Routledge (World Religions). ISBN978-0415456654
• Smith, E. Gene (2001). Among Tibetan Texts: History and Literature of the Himalayan Plateau. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN0-86171-179-3
• Sopa, Geshe Lhundup; Jeffrey Hopkins (1977). Practice and Theory of Tibetan Buddhism. New Delhi: B.I. Publications. ISBN0-09-125621-6. [Part Two of this book, ‘’Theory: Systems of Tenets’’ is an annotated translation of ‘’Precious Garland of Tenets (Grub-mtha’ rin-chhen phreng-ba)’’ by Kön-chok-jik-may-wang-po (1728-1791).]
• Tsomo, Karma Lekshe (1 April 1999). Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. State University of New York Press. ISBN978-0-7914-4138-1.
• The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment
  • Tsong-kha-pa (2000). Joshua Cutler; Guy Newland (eds.). The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment, Volume I. Canada: Snow Lion. ISBN1-55939-152-9.
  • Tsong-kha-pa (2002). Joshua Cutler; Guy Newland (eds.). The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment, Volume II. Canada: Snow Lion. ISBN1-55939-168-5.
  • Tsong-kha-pa (2004). Joshua Cutler; Guy Newland (eds.). The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment, Volume III. Canada: Snow Lion. ISBN1-55939-166-9.
• Wallace, B. Alan (1999), 'The Buddhist Tradition of Samatha: Methods for Refining and Examining Consciousness', Journal of Consciousness Studies6 (2-3): 175-187 .
• Yeshe De Project (1986): Ancient Tibet: Research Materials from The Yeshe De Project. Dharma Publishing, Berkeley, California. ISBN0-89800-146-3.

Further reading[edit]

Introductory books

• John Powers (1995, 2007), Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Snow Lion Publications
• John Powers (2008), A Concise Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Snow Lion Publications
• Matthew T. Kapstein (2014), Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press
• Wallace, B. Alan (October 25, 1993). Tibetan Buddhism From the Ground Up: A Practical Approach for Modern Life. Wisdom Publications. ISBN0-86171-075-4, ISBN978-0-86171-075-1

'Insider' texts

• Yeshe, Lama Thubten (2001). 'The Essence of Tibetan Buddhism'. Lama Yeshe Wisdom Archive. ISBN1-891868-08-X

Other books

• Coleman, Graham, ed. (1993). A Handbook of Tibetan Culture. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc. ISBN1-57062-002-4.
• Ringu Tulku (2006). The Ri-Me Philosophy of Jamgon Kongtrul the Great: A Study of the Buddhist Lineages of Tibet. Shambhala. ISBN978-1-59030-286-6.
• Smith, E. Gene (2001). Among Tibetan Texts: History and Literature of the Himalayan Plateau. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN0-86171-179-3

Articles

• Cabezón, José Ignacio (2006-10-26). 'Tibetan Buddhist Society'. In Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0010.

External links[edit]

• Tibetan Buddhism at Curlie
• A Day In The Life Of A Tibetan Monk - article and slideshow by National Geographic

Buddhism was first actively disseminated in Tibet from the 6th to the 9th century CE, predominantly from India. During the Era of Fragmentation (9th–10th centuries), Buddhism waned in Tibet, only to rise again in the 11th century. With the Mongol invasion of Tibet in the 13th century and the establishment of the MongolYuan dynasty, Tibetan Buddhism spread beyond Tibet to Mongolia and China. From the 14th to the 20th Tibetan Buddhism was patronized by the Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Manchurian Qing dynasty (1644–1912).

The Gelugpa school, founded by Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), rose to (political) prominence under Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682), the 5th Dalai Lama, who invited the Mongols to intervene in the Tibetan civil war. The Mongols invested him with the political power of Tibet, leading to the dominance of the Gelugpa until the 20th century. In the 19th century the Rimé movement provided a counter-weight against this dominance, trying to preserve the teachings of the Nyingma, Kagyu and Sakya schools.

In the early 20th century Tibet acquired de facto independence from the Manchurian Qing Empire, which ended again with the Chinese invasion of 1950 and the ensuing exodus of Tibetans. Today, Tibetan Buddhism is still adhered to in the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding regions, while it has also attracted a considerable interest in the Western world.

• 2First dissemination (7th–9th centuries)
  • 2.3Chinese influences (8th century)
• 5Mongol dominance (13th–14th centuries)
• 6Tibetan independence (14th–18th centuries)
  • 6.2Ming patronage
  • 6.3Ganden Phodrang government (17th–18th centuries)
• 7Qing rule (18th–20th centuries)
• 8Modern history (20th–21st centuries)

Legendary origins (6th century)[edit]

According to tradition, in the reign of King Thothori Nyantsen (6th century),^{[note 1]} a basket of Buddhist scriptures arrived in Tibet from India.^{[note 2]}

First dissemination (7th–9th centuries)[edit]

Songtsän Gampo (7th century)[edit]

Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures from Nepal & India were first translated into Tibetan under the reign of the Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo (618-649),^[1] who established the Tibetan Empire. While there is doubt about the level of Songtsän Gampo's interest in Buddhism, it is known that he married a Chinese Tang Dynasty Buddhist princess, Wencheng, who came to Tibet with a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha. It is clear from Tibetan sources that some of his successors became ardent Buddhists. The records show that Chinese Buddhists were actively involved in missionary activity in Tibet, but they did not have the same level of imperial support as Indian Buddhists, with tantric lineages from Bihar and Bengal.^[2]

According to a Tibetan legendary tradition, Songtsän Gampo also married a Nepalese Buddhist princess, Bhrikuti. By the second half of the 8th century he was already regarded as an embodiment of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara.^[3]

Indian and Nepalese influences (8th century)[edit]

In the 8th century Buddhism really took hold in Tibet.^{[5][note 3]} The successors of Songtsän Gampo were less enthusiastic about the propagation of Buddhism, but in the 8th century King Trisong Detsen (755–797) established it as the official religion of the state.^[6]

Trisong Detsen invited Indian Buddhist scholars to his court, and Tibetan Buddhists today trace their oldest spiritual roots to the Indian masters Padmasambhāva (8th century) and Śāntarakṣita (725–788), who founded the Nyingma, The Ancient Ones, the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism.^[7] According to Tibetan tradition, Padmasambhāva wrote a number of important scriptures, some of which he hid for future tertons to find; these Terma 'treasures' (revealed texts) are of particular significance to the Nyingma school.

At this early time also, from the south came the influence of scholars under the Pāla dynasty in the Indian state of Magadha. They had achieved a blend of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna that has come to characterize all forms of Tibetan Buddhism. Their teaching in sutra centered on the Abhisamayālankāra, a 4th-century Yogācārin text, but prominent among them were the Mādhyamika scholars Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla.

A third influence was that of the Sarvāstivādins from Kashmir to the southwest^[8] and Khotan to the northwest.^[9] Although they did not succeed in maintaining a presence in Tibet, their texts found their way into the Tibetan Buddhist canon, providing the Tibetans with almost all of their primary sources about what they regarded to be the Hinayana. A subsect of this school, Mūlasarvāstivāda was the source of the Tibetan vinaya.^[10]

Chinese influences (8th century)[edit]

The Chinese princess Jincheng Gongzhu (zh:金城公主) (?–739), known in Tibet as Kim-sheng,^{[note 4]} and a devout Buddhist, was sent to Tibet in 710 where she married Mes-ag-tshoms.^{[11][note 5]} Buddhist monks from Khotan (Li), fleeing the persecutions of an anti-Buddhist king, were given refuge by Kim-sheng about 737. Kim-sheng died during an outbreak of smallpox sometime between 739 and 741, and anti-Buddhist factions in Tibet began to blame the epidemic on the support of Buddhism by the king and queen.^[12] This forced the monks to flee once again; first to Gandhara, and then to Kosambi in central India where the monks apparently ended up quarrelling and slaughtering each other.^[13]

Tibetan king Trisong Detsen (742–797) invited the Chan master Moheyan^{[note 6]} to transmit the Dharma at Samye Monastery. According to Tibetan sources, Moheyan lost the so-called council of Lhasa (793), a debate sponsored by Trisong Detsen on the nature of emptiness with the Indian master Kamalaśīla, and the king declared Kamalaśīlas philosophy should form the basis for Tibetan Buddhism.^{[14][15][note 7][note 8]} However, a Chinese source found in Dunhuang written by Mo-ho-yen says their side won, and some scholars conclude that the entire episode is fictitious.^[16][17]

Pioneering Buddhologist Giuseppe Tucci speculated that Mohayen's ideas were preserved by the Nyingmapas in the form of dzogchen teachings.^{[18][note 9]} John Myrdhin Reynolds and Sam van Schaik reject this possibility. According to Reynolds, 'Except for a brief flirtation with Ch'an in the early days of Buddhism in Tibet in the eighth century, the Tibetans exhibited almost no interest at all in Chinese Buddhism, except for translating a few Sutras from Chinese for which they did not possess Indian originals.'^{[22][note 10]}

Growth in Tibet (9th century)[edit]

From the outset Buddhism was opposed by the native shamanistic Bön religion, which had the support of the aristocracy, but it thrived under royal patronage, reaching a peak under King Rälpachän (r. 817–836). Terminology in translation was standardised around 825, enabling a highly literal translation methodology.

Era of fragmentation (9th–10th centuries)[edit]

A reversal in Buddhist influence began under King Langdarma (r. 836–842), and his death was followed by the so-called Era of Fragmentation, a period of Tibetan history in the 9th and 10th centuries. During this era, the political centralization of the earlier Tibetan Empire collapsed.^[24] The period was dominated by rebellions against the remnants of imperial Tibet and the rise of regional warlords.^[25] Upon the death of Langdarma, the last emperor of a unified Tibetan empire, a civil war ensued, which effectively ended centralized Tibetan administration until the Sa-skya period. Ösung's allies managed to keep control of Lhasa, and Yumtän was forced to go to Yalung, where he established a separate line of kings.^[26]

Tibetan Renaissance (10th–12th centuries)[edit]

The late 10th and 11th century saw a revival of Buddhism in Tibet. Coinciding with the early discoveries of 'hidden treasures' (terma),^[27] the 11th century saw a revival of Buddhist influence originating in the far east and far west of Tibet.^[28] In the west, Rinchen Zangpo (958-1055) was active as a translator and founded temples and monasteries. Prominent scholars and teachers were again invited from India.

In 1042 Atiśa (982–1054 CE) arrived in Tibet at the invitation of a west Tibetan king. This renowned exponent of the Pāla form of Buddhism from the Indian university of Vikramashila later moved to central Tibet. There his chief disciple, Dromtonpa founded the Kadampa school of Tibetan Buddhism, under whose influence the New Translation schools of today evolved.

Tibetan Buddhism Definition

The Sakya, the Grey Earth school, was founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo (Wylie: 'khon dkon mchog rgyal po, 1034–1102), a disciple of the great Lotsawa, Drogmi Shākya (Wylie: brog mi lo tsā wa ye shes). It is headed by the Sakya Trizin, traces its lineage to the mahasiddha Virūpa,^[7] and represents the scholarly tradition. A renowned exponent, Sakya Pandita (1182–1251CE), was the great-grandson of Khön Könchok Gyelpo.

Other seminal Indian teachers were Tilopa (988–1069) and his student Naropa (probably died ca. 1040 CE).The Kagyu, the Lineage of the (Buddha's) Word, is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic. It contains one major and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to the Indian master Naropa via Marpa Lotsawa, Milarepa and Gampopa^[7]

Mongol dominance (13th–14th centuries)[edit]

Initial influence on Mongolia (11th–13th centuries)[edit]

Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of Inner Asia, especially the Mongols. Tantric-style Tibetan Buddhism was possibly first spread to the Mongols via the Tangut state of Western Xia (1038–1227).^[29][30] Buddhists entered the service of the Mongol Empire in the early 13th century. Buddhist monasteries established in Karakorum were granted tax exempt status, though the religion was not given official status by the Mongols until later.

Mongol conquest of Tibet (13th century)[edit]

The Mongols invaded Tibet in 1240.^[31][32] The Mongols withdrew their soldiers from Tibet in 1241, and returned to the region in 1244, when Köten delivered an ultimatum, summoning the abbot of Sakya (Kun-dga' rGyal-mtshan) to be his personal chaplain, on pains of a larger invasion were he to refuse.^[33] Sakya Paṇḍita took almost 3 years to obey the summons and arrive in the Kokonor region in 1246, and met Prince Köten in Liangzhou the following year. The Mongols had annexed Amdo and Kham to the east, and appointed Sakya Paṇḍita Viceroy of Central Tibet by the Mongol court in 1249.^[34]

Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol Empire, retaining nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols managed a structural and administrative^[35][36] rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention.

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)[edit]

Tibetan Buddhism was adopted as the de factostate religion by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), founded by Kublai Khan, that also ruled China.^{[37][note 11]}

All variants of Buddhism, such as Chinese, Tibetan and Indian Buddhism flourished, though Tibetan Buddhism was eventually favored at the imperial level under emperor Möngke (1209-1259), who appointed Namo from Kashmir as chief of all Buddhist monks. The top-level department and government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) to supervise Buddhist monks throughout the empire. The SakyaImperial Preceptors were active at the Yuan court and enjoyed special power.^[39] During this period Tibetan Buddhism was practiced not only within the capital Beijing and the Tibetan Plateau, but throughout the country. For instance, Hangzhou, capital of the former Southern Song dynasty and the largest city in the Yuan realm, became an important hub of the activities of Tibetan Buddhism, which took public or official precedence over Han Chinese Buddhism. Similarly, Mount Wutai, the sacred site of BodhisattvaManjusri and the holy mountain of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, was greatly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism.^[40]

Decline of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate (13th–14th centuries)[edit]

Among the ruling class of the Mongol khanates of the Golden Horde (1240s–1502) and the Ilkhanate (1256–1335/1353), the two western khanates of the Mongol Empire, Shamanism and Buddhism were once the dominant religions, as in the Yuan dynasty. In the early days, the rulers of both khanates increasingly adopted Tibetan Buddhism, like the Yuan dynasty at that time. However, the Mongol rulers Ghazan of the Ilkhanate and Uzbeg of the Golden Horde converted to Islam in AD 1295 and AD 1313 respectively. The Yuan dynasty based in China and Mongolia became the only division of the Mongol Empire not to embrace Islam, instead favoring Tibetan Buddhism until its demise.

Tibetan independence (14th–18th centuries)[edit]

With the decline of the Yuan dynasty, Central Tibet was to ruled by successive families from the 14th to the 17th century, and Tibet would be de facto independent from the mid-14th century on, for nearly 400 years.^[41]

Family rule and establishment of Gelugpa school (14th–17th centuries)[edit]

Jangchub Gyaltsän (Byang chub rgyal mtshan, 1302–1364) became the strongest political family in the mid 14th century. Military hostilities ended in 1354 with Jangchub Gyaltsän as the unquestioned victor, who established the Phagmodrupa Dynasty in that year. He continued to rule central Tibet until his death in 1364, although he left all Mongol institutions in place as hollow formalities. Power remained in the hands of the Phagmodru family until 1434.^[42]

The rule of Jangchub Gyaltsän and his successors implied a new cultural self-awareness where models were sought in the age of the ancient Tibetan Kingdom. The relatively peaceful conditions favoured the literary and artistic development.^[43] During this period the reformist scholar Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) founded the Gelug sect which would have a decisive influence on Tibet's history.

Tibetan Buddhism Beliefs

Internal strife within the Phagmodrupa dynasty, and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions, led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435.

In 1565 the Rinpungpa family was overthrown by the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect. They would play a pivotal role in the events which led to the rise of power of the Dalai Lama's in the 1640s.

Ming patronage[edit]

Tibet[edit]

In spite of the weakening of central authority, the neighbouring Ming Dynasty of China (1368–1644) made little effort to impose direct rule, although it had nominal claims of the Tibetan territory by establishing the U-Tsang Regional Military Commission and Do-Kham Regional Military Commission in the 1370s. Tibetan Buddhism was patronized by the ethnic-Chinese Ming dynasty that succeeded the Yuan,^[44][45] and kept friendly relations with some of the Buddhism religious leaders known as Princes of Dharma and granted some other titles to local leaders including the Grand Imperial Tutor.^[46][47]

Mongolia[edit]

The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) rulers deliberately helped propagate Tibetan Buddhism instead of Chinese Buddhism among the Mongols. During the early period of the Northern Yuan dynasty (1368-ca.1636), shamanism once again became the sole dominant religion in Mongolia, but the last sixty years before the death of the last khan Ligdan Khan (1588-1643) were marked by intensive penetration of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongolian society. In 1578, Sonam Gyatso was invited to Mongolia and converted Altan Khan to Buddhism along with his tribe (the first Mongol tribe to be so converted). Altan Khan conferred the title 'Dalai' on him, 'Dalai' being the Mongolian translation of his Tibetan name 'Gyatso', which means 'sea' or 'ocean'.^[48] This is the origin of the title Dalai Lama.^{[citation needed]} The Ming assisted Altan Khan (1507–1582), King of the Tümed Mongols, when he requested aid in propagating Lamaism.^[49] Within 50 years nearly all the Mongols had become Buddhists, including tens of thousands of monks, almost all followers of the Gelug school and loyal to the Dalai Lama.^[50] Since then Tibetan Buddhism has played a very important role among the Mongols.

Tibetan Buddhism was the most important religion among the Mongols under Qing rule (1635–1912), as well as the state religion of the Kalmyk Khanate (1630–1771), the Dzungar Khanate (1634–1758) and the Khoshut Khanate (1642–1717). Tibetan Buddhism was also adored by the Qing court (1644–1912) since both Mongols and Tibetans believed in Tibetan Buddhism.^{[citation needed]}

Some historians view the promotion of Lamaist Buddhism among the Mongols by the Ming and Qing as a deliberate plot to weaken the Mongol's military prowess, but others reject the theory.^{[citation needed]}

Ganden Phodrang government (17th–18th centuries)[edit]

The Ganden Phodrang was the Tibetan regime or government that was established by the 5th Dalai Lama with the help of the Güshi Khan of the Khoshut in 1642. After the civil war in the 17th century and the Mongol intervention, the Gelugpa school dominated Tibetan Buddhism, and successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries.

Beginnings of the Dalai Lama lineage[edit]

The rise of the Dalai Lama's was intimately connected with the military power of Mongolian clans. Altan Khan, the king of the TümedMongols, first invited Sonam Gyatso, the head of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism (later known as the third Dalai Lama), to Mongolia in 1569 and again in 1578, during the reign of the Tsangpa family. Gyatso accepted the second invitation. They met at the site of Altan Khan's new capital, Koko Khotan (Hohhot), and the Dalai Lama taught a huge crowd there.

Sonam Gyatso publicly announced that he was a reincarnation of the Tibetan Sakya monk Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280) who converted Kublai Khan, while Altan Khan was a reincarnation of Kublai Khan (1215–1294), the famous ruler of the Mongols and Emperor of China, and that they had come together again to cooperate in propagating the Buddhist religion.^[51] While this did not immediately lead to a massive conversion of Mongols to Buddhism (this would only happen in the 1630s), it did lead to the widespread use of Buddhist ideology for the legitimation of power among the Mongol nobility. Last but not least, Yonten Gyatso, the fourth Dalai Lama, was a grandson of Altan Khan.^[52]

Rise and dominance of Gelugpa (17th–18th centuries)[edit]

Sonam Choephel (1595–1657 CE), the first regent of the fifth Dalai Lama, was 'the prime architect of the Gelug's rise to power'.^[53] Sonam Choephel requested the aid of Güshi Khan, a powerful Dzungar military leader to end decades of clan-wars in Dbus and Gtsang privinces, and the Tibetan civil war of 1639-1642.^[54][53]Güshi Khan (who was head of the Khoshut tribe) conquered Kham in 1640 bringing the Sakyas and the lords of Kham and Amdo under their control. His victory over Karma Tenkyong, the prince of Tsang in Shigatse, in 1642, completed the military unification of the country and the establishment of the Khoshut Khanate. By this feat the Phagmodrupa Dynasty, which was associated with a variant of the Kagyu school, was technically replaced; in actual fact it had been powerless for many years. By subsequently formally recognizing the Fifth Dalai Lama's authority in 1642, Güshi Khan effectively made Gyatso the temporal ruler of all Tibet.^[53][55][56]

Qing rule (18th–20th centuries)[edit]

Establishment of Qing rule[edit]

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) established their rule over Tibet after a Qing expedition force defeated the Dzungars in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Qing emperors appointed imperial residents known as the Ambans to Tibet, who commanded over 2,000 troops stationed in Lhasa and reported to the Lifan Yuan, a Qing government agency that oversaw the region during this period.^[57] The rulers of the Manchu Qing dynasty supported Tibetan Buddhism, especially the Gelug sect, for most of their dynasty.^[37]

Rimé movement (19th century)[edit]

The Rimé movement was a movement involving the Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma schools of Tibetan Buddhism, along with some Bon scholars.^[58] Having seen how the Gelug institutions pushed the other traditions into the corners of Tibet's cultural life, Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820–1892) and Jamgön Kongtrül (1813–1899) compiled together the teachings of the Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma, including many near-extinct teachings.^[59] Without Khyentse and Kongtrul's collecting and printing of rare works, the suppression of Buddhism by the Communists would have been much more final.^[60] The Rimé movement is responsible for a number of scriptural compilations, such as the Rinchen Terdzod and the Sheja Dzö.

Modern history (20th–21st centuries)[edit]

20th century – de facto independence, Chinese occupation, and Tibetan exodus[edit]

In 1912 Tibet became de facto independent again, but was annexed by the Chinese People's republic in 1950. In 1959 the 14th Dalai Lama and a great number of clergy fled the country, to settle in India and other neighbouring countries. This also started the spread of Tibetan Buddhism to western countries, resulting in worldwide communities of Tibetan Buddhism.

21st century – exile and spread abroad[edit]

Today, Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the Tibetan Plateau, Mongolia, northern Nepal, Kalmykia (on the north-west shore of the Caspian), Siberia (Tuva and Buryatia), the Russian Far East and northeast China. It is the state religion of Bhutan.^[61] The Indian regions of Sikkim and Ladakh, both formerly independent kingdoms, are also home to significant Tibetan Buddhist populations, as are the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh (which includes Dharamshala and the district of Lahaul-Spiti), West Bengal (the hill stations of Darjeeling and Kalimpong) and Arunachal Pradesh.

In the wake of the Tibetan diaspora, Tibetan Buddhism has gained adherents in the West and throughout the world. Fully ordained Tibetan Buddhist Monks now work in academia (for example Ven. Alex Bruce ('Tenpa')).^[62] The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, has traveled the world and spoken about the welfare of Tibetans, environment, economics, women's rights, non-violence, interfaith dialogue, physics, astronomy, Buddhism and science, cognitive neuroscience, reproductive health, and sexuality, along with various Mahayana and Vajrayana topics. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^On this date, see Richardson, Hugh: 'The Origin of the Tibetan Kingdom', in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 159. Traditional Tibetan sources state that this event occurred rather in 233.
2. ^According to a Tibetan legendary tradition, they fell from the sky and included Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra: Studholme, Alexander: The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum, Albany, NY 2002, pp. 13-14.
3. ^For more detail, see: Alexander Berzin, History of the Early Period of Buddhism and Bon in Tibet
4. ^From Gyim shang Ong; also known as Kong-co
5. ^He who would have been only six or seven years old at the time.
6. ^和尚摩訶衍; his name consists of the same Chinese characters used to transliterate “Mahayana”) (Tibetan: Hwa shang Mahayana)
7. ^ The whole incident was recorded in a book called 'Le Concile de Lhasa' by French historian Paul Demieville.
8. ^Kamalaśīla wrote the three Bhāvanākrama texts (修習次第三篇) after that.
9. ^According to A. W. Barber of the University of Calgary,^[19]Chan Buddhism was introduced to the Nyingmapa in three principal streams: the teachings of Korean Master Kim, Kim Ho-shang, (Chin ho shang) 金和尚 transmitted by Sang Shi^[20] in ca. 750 AD; the lineage of Master Wu Chu (無住禪師) of the Pao T'ang School was transmitted within Tibet by Ye-shes Wangpo; and the teaching from Mo-ho-yen, that were a synthesis of the Northern School of Chan and the Pao T'ang School.^[21]
10. ^Schaik emphasises that Chan and Dzogchen are based on two different classes of scripture, Chan being based on sutras, while Dzogchen being based on tantras.^[23] Schaik further states 'apparent similarities can be misleading.'^[23]
11. ^The Mongols may have been attracted to the Lamaist tradition and responded the way they did due to the Lamaist's superficial culture similarities with the Mongol's Shamanist culture. Even with this attraction, however, the Mongols 'paid little attention to the fine points of Buddhist doctrine.'^[38]

References[edit]

1. ^Berzin, Alexander, A Survey of Tibetan History
2. ^Powers 2004, pp. 38-39
3. ^Macdonald, Alexander: Religion in Tibet at the time of Srong-btsan sgam-po: myth as history, in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 354-363 (for the queens see p. 355); Dargyay, Eva: Srong-btsan sgam-po of Tibet: Bodhisattva and king, in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 364-378 (for the queens see p. 373).
4. ^Wallace, 1999: 183.
5. ^Conze 1993.
6. ^Beckwith, C.I.: The revolt of 755 in Tibet, in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 273-285 (discusses the political background and the motives of the ruler).
7. ^ ^abcBerzin. Alexander (2000). How Did Tibetan Buddhism Develop?: StudyBuddhism.com
8. ^Conze, 1993, 106
9. ^Berzin, Alexander (2000). How Did Tibetan Buddhism Develop?; Berzin, Alexander (1996). The Spread of Buddhism in Asia
10. ^Berzin, Alexander, as above
11. ^Wangdu and Diemberger (2000), pp. 33-34 and n. 56.
12. ^Ancient Tibet, p. 253.
13. ^Hill (1988), pp. 179-180
14. ^定解宝灯论新月释
15. ^Yamaguchi, Zuihō (undated). The Core Elements of Indian Buddhism Introduced into Tibet: A Contrast with Japanese Buddhism. Source: Thezensite.com (accessed: October 20, 2007)
16. ^敦煌唐代写本顿悟大乘正理决
17. ^Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), page 70
18. ^Masao Ichishima, 'Sources of Tibetan Buddhist Meditation.' Buddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 2, (1982), pp. 121-122, published by University of Hawai'i Press.
19. ^A.W. Barber
20. ^Sang Shi later became an abbot of Samye Monastery.
21. ^Barber, A. W. (1990). 'The Unifying of Rdzogs Pa Chen Po and Ch'an'. Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal. 3, 04.1990: 301–317. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
22. ^Reynolds, John. http://vajranatha.com/teaching/DzogchenChinese.htm (accessed: November 18, 2010)
23. ^ ^abRSchaik, Sam van. http://earlytibet.com/2011/11/22/tibetan-chan-v/ (accessed: February 27, 2011)
24. ^Shakabpa. p.173.
25. ^Schaik, Galambos. p.4.
26. ^Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet, a Political History (New Haven: Yale, 1967), 53.
27. ^Berzin, Alexander. The Four Traditions of Tibetan Buddhism: Personal Experience, History, and Comparisons
28. ^Conze, 1993, 104ff
29. ^Charles Orzech; Henrik Sørensen; Richard Payne (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. BRILL. pp. 540–. ISBN90-04-18491-0.
30. ^Ann Heirman; Stephan Peter Bumbacher (11 May 2007). The Spread of Buddhism. BRILL. pp. 12–. ISBN978-90-474-2006-4.
31. ^Shakabpa. p.61: 'thirty thousand troops, under the command of Leje and Dorta, reached Phanpo, north of Lhasa.'
32. ^Sanders. p. 309, his grandson Godan Khan invaded Tibet with 30000 men and destroyed several Buddhist monasteries north of Lhasa
33. ^Buell, ibid. p.194: Shakabpa, 1967 pp.61-2.
34. ^'Buddhist Digital Resource Center'. www.tbrc.org. Retrieved 2019-02-05.
35. ^Wylie 1990, p. 104.
36. ^'To counterbalance the political power of the lama, Khubilai appointed civil administrators at the Sa-skya to supervise the mongol regency.'
37. ^ ^abThe Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art, by John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel, Robert A. F. Thurman, p48
38. ^Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 142.
39. ^History of civilizations of Central Asia.: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century. Part two : The achievements, p59
40. ^Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia, by Charles Orzech, Henrik Sørensen, Richard Payne, p548
41. ^Rossabi 1983, p. 194
42. ^Petech, L. Central Tibet and The Mongols. (Serie Orientale Roma 65). Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente 1990: 85–143
43. ^Van Schaik, S. Tibet. A History. New Haven & London: Yale University Press 2011: 88–112.
44. ^http://www.history.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/readings/robinson_culture_courtiers_ch.8.pdf
45. ^https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/040214374_Slobodn%C3%ADk.pdf p 166.
46. ^Tucci, G. Tibetan Painted Scrolls, Vol. 1-2. Rome 1949, Vol. 1: 692-3.
47. ^Zhang, T.History of Ming-Geography III
48. ^McKay 2003, p. 18
49. ^Patrick Taveirne (1 January 2004). Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911. Leuven University Press. pp. 67–. ISBN978-90-5867-365-7.
50. ^Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, p. 144. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN978-0-8021-1827-1
51. ^Laird 2006, p. 145.
52. ^Michael Weiers, Geschichte der Mongolen, Stuttgart 2004, p. 175ff.
53. ^ ^abcKarmay, Samten G. (December 2005). 'The Great Fifth'(PDF). IIAS Newsletter Number 39. Leiden, The Netherlands: International Institute for Asian Studies. pp. 12, 13. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
54. ^Ronald M. Davidson, Tibet. In: Robert M. Buswell (ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p.856
55. ^Laird, Thomas. (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 158-162. Grove Press, New York. ISBN978-0-8021-1827-1.
56. ^Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, p. 42. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN0-87773-376-7.(pbk)
57. ^Emblems of Empire: Selections from the Mactaggart Art Collection, by John E. Vollmer, Jacqueline Simcox, p154
58. ^Lopez, Donald S. (1998). Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 190
59. ^Schaik, Sam van. Tibet: A History. Yale University Press 2011, page 165-9.
60. ^Schaik, Sam van. Tibet: A History. Yale University Press 2011, page 169.
61. ^The 2007 U.S. State Department report on religious freedom in Bhutan notes that 'Mahayana Buddhism is the state religion...' and that the Bhutanese government supports both the Kagyu and Nyingma sects. State.gov
62. ^Bruce A (ed). One World – Many Paths to Peace ANU E-Press 2009 (launched by the 14th Dalai Lama) http://eview.anu.edu.au/one_world/index.php (accessed 11 May 2013)

Sources[edit]

• Buddha Dharma Education Association and Buddhanet. Timeline of Tibetan Buddhism
• Davidson, Ronald M.. Tibet. In: Robert M. Buswell (ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism.
• Smith, E. Gene (2001). Among Tibetan Texts: History and Literature of the Himalayan Plateau. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN0-86171-179-3.

Further reading[edit]

• Conze, Edward (1993). A Short History of Buddhism (2nd ed.). Oneworld. ISBN1-85168-066-7. - a concise introduction

External links[edit]

• Berzin, Alexander. 'Tibetan Buddhism, History & Culture' in Study Buddhism